2 G. Allen, Life Science in the Twentieth Century, (New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1975), chapter 4; N· Reingold and I. Reingold, eds., Science in America: A Documentary History, 1900-1939 (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1981), chapter 6; L. Owens, "Pure and Sound Government: Laboratories, Playing Fields, and Gymnasia in the Nineteenth Century Search for Order," Isis 76 (1985): 182-194.

3 R.E. Kohler, From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry (Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 1982), chapter 7; P. Pauly, "The Appearance of Academic Biology in Late-Nineteenth Century America," Journal of the History of Biology 17 (1984): 369-397.

4 P. Pauly, "General Physiology and the Discipline of Physiology, 1890-1935," in G. Geison, ed., Physiology in the American Context, 1850-1940 (Washington, D.C.: American Physiological Society, 1987), 195-207.

5 G.W. Corner, History of the Rockefeller Institute (New York: The Rockefeller Institute, 1964), passim; and "Simon Flexner," Dictionary of Scientific Biography (New York: Scribners, 1970-1980), 5: 39-41.

6 For a good source on Lillie's scientific work and his institutional influence see K. Manning, Black Apollo of Science (New York: Oxford University Press, 1983).

7 P. Pauly, Controlling life: Jacques Loeb and the Engineering Ideal in Biology (New York: Oxford University Press, 1987).

8 0sterhout's activities are discussed in G. Allen, Thomas Hunt Morgan: The Man and His Science (Princeton: Princeton University Press, 1979), chapters 6 and 7, and in Corner, History of the Rockefeller Institute, 176-177.

9 Allen, Life Sciences, 95-103; S. Benison, Walter B. Cannon: the Life and Times of a Young Scientist (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987); S.J. Cross and W.R Albury, "Walter B. Cannon, L. I. Henderson, and the Organic Analogy," Osiris 3 (1987): 165-192.

10 Kohler, From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry, chapter 7; J. Fruton, Molecules and Life (New York: John Wiley and Sons, 1972), introduction; R. H. Chittenden, The Development of Physiological Chemistry in the United States (New York: Chemical Catalog Co., 1930).

11 Kohler, From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry, chapter 10.

12 Fruton, Molecules and Life, chapter 3; R. C.Olby, The Path to the Double Helix (London: Macmillan Press, 1974), section 2.

13 p. Abir-Am, "From Biochemistry to Molecular Biology: DNA and the Acculturated Journey of the Critic of Science Erwin Chargaff," History and Philosophy of the Life Sciences 2 (1980): 3-60.

14 S.M. Hughes, The Virus: A History of the Concept (New York: Science History Publications, 1977); L. Wilkinson, "The Development of the Virus Concept as Reflected in Corpora of Studies on Individual Pathogens," Medical History 23 (1979): 1-28.

15 R.E. Kohler, "Innovation in Normal Science: Bacterial Physiology," Isis 76 (1985): 162-181.

16 p. Mazumdar, "The Antigen-Antibody Reaction and the Physics and Chemistry of Life," Bulletin of the History of Medicine 48 (1974): 1-21; A. M. Silverstein, "History of Immunology," in W. E. Paul, ed., Fundamentals of Immunology (New York: Raven Press, 1984), 9-50.

17 Corner, History of the Rockefeller Institute, 183-186.

18 There is no single source for the history of biophysics although F. Brink Jr.'s article, "Detlev Wulf Bronk," in the Memoirs of the National Academy of Science 50 (1975): 3-40, provides a broad account of the growth of biophysics. I thank Bill Leslie for making material on the history of biophysics available to me.

19 Quoted in R.E. Kohler, "The Management of Science: The Experience of Warren Weaver and the Rockefeller Foundation Programme in Molecular Biology," Minerva 14 (1976): 249-293.

20 Reingold and Reingold, Science in America, chapter 6.

21 B.D. Karl and S. N. Katz, "The American Private Philanthropic Foundations and the Public Sphere, 1890-1930," Minerva 19 (1981): 236-270; R. E. Calahan, Education and the Cult of Efficiency (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1962); D. N. Pickens, Eugenics and the Progressives (Nashville: Vanderbilt University Press, 1958).

22 N. Reingold, "National Policy in Private Foundations: The Carnegie Institution of Washington," in Oleson and Voss, The Organization of Knowledge, 313-341.

23 Corner, History of the Rockefeller Foundation; R Dubos, The Professor, the Institute, and DNA (New York: Rockefeller University Press, 1976); F. Ringer, "The German Academic Community," in Oleson and Voss, The Organization of Knowledge, 409-429.

24 L.E. Kay, "W. M. Stanley's Crystallization of the Tobacco Mosaic Virus," Isis 77 (1986), 450-472

25 The Rockefeller Institute became a model for the biology division of the California Institute of Technology planned in the late 1920s.

26 R.H. Kargon, ed., The Making of American Science (Washington, D.C.: American Association for the Advancement of Science, 1974), introduction; D. J. Kevles, "George Ellery Hale, the First World War, and the Advancement of Science in America," Isis 59 (1968): 427-437; A. Roland, "Science and War," Osiris 1 (1985): 247-272; D. Rhees, "The Chemists' Crusade: The Rise of an Industrial Science in Modern America, 1907-1922," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1987.

27 Corner, History of the Rockefeller Institute, chapter 6.

28 S. Cohen, "American Foundations as Patrons of Science: The Commitment to Individual Research," in N. Reingold, ed., The Sciences in the American Context: New Perspectives (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1979), 229-248.

29 Kohler, "The Management of Science"; Kohler, "A Policy of the Advancement of Science: The Rockefeller Foundation, 1924-1929:" Minerva 16 (1978): 480-515; P. Abir-Am, "The Discourse of Physical Power and Biological Knowledge in the 1930s: A Reappraisal of the Rockefeller Foundation's 'Policy' in Molecular Biology," Social Studies of Science 12 (1982), 341-362; E. Yoxen, "Giving Life a New Meaning: The Rise of the Molecular Biology Establishment," in N. Elias, H. Martins, and R Whitly, eds., Scientific Establishments and Hierarchies: Sociology of the Sciences (Doerdrecht: D. Reidel Publishing Co., 1982), 4: 123-143; R. Fosdick, The Story of the Rockefeller Foundation (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1952).

30 1. Swann, "The Emergence of Cooperative Research Between American Universities and the Pharmaceutical Industry, 1920-1940," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1985.

31 D. Fleming and B. Bailyn, eds., The Intelectzual Migration: Europe and America, 1930-1960 (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1969); I.C· Jackman and C.M. Borden, eds., The Muses Flee Hitler: Cultural Transfer and Adaptation, 1930-1945 (Washington, D.C.: Smithsonian Institution Press, 1983).

32 G.W. Gray, Science at War (New York: Harper and Brothers, 1943); J. P. Baxter III, Scientists Against Time (New York: Little and Brown, 1946); I. Stewart, Organizing Scientific Research for War (Boston: Little and Brown, 1948); Roland, "Science and War " 263-267.

33 Corner, Histoty of the Rockefeller Institute, chapter 20; S. Benison, Tom Rivers: Reflection on a Life in Medicine and Science, An Oral Memoir (Cambridge: M.I.T. Press, 1967).

34 D.J. Kevles, "The National Science Foundation and the Debate over Postwar Research Policy, 1942-1945, Isis 68 (1977): 18. These issues are also discussed in D. Noble, Forces of Production (New York: Alfred E. Knopf, 1984): 2-20, and N. Reingold, "Vannevar Bush's New Deal for Research: or The Triumph of the Old Order," Historical Studies in the Physical Sciences 17(1987): 299-344.

35 Daniel S. Greenberg, "American Institute of Biological Sciences," Science 139 (1963), 319.

36 For the pre-World War II antecedents see V. A. Harden, Inventing the NIH: Federal Biochemical Research Policy, 1887-1937 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1986).

37 For example, R. E. Kohler, From Medical Chemistry to Biochemistry; M. Rossiter, "The Organization of the Agricultural Sciences," in Oleson and Voss, The Organization of Knowledge , 211-248; C. E. Rosenberg, No Other Gods (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1976), part II. Two recent correctives are: D. K. Fitzgerald, "The Business of Breeding: Public and Private Development of Hybrid Corn in Illinois, 1890-1940," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1985, and B. N. Kimmelman, "A Progressive Era Discipline: Genetics at American Agricultural Colleges and Experimental Stations, 1900-1920," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1987.

38 Two recent examples are J. Liebenau, "Medical Science and Medical Industry, 1890-1929: A Study of Pharmaceutical Manufacturing in Philadelphia," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1981, and J. Swann, "The Emergence of Cooperative Research Between American Universities and the Pharmaceutical Industry, 1920-1940," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Wisconsin, 1985.

39 Recent scholarship includes E. Fox-Keller, A Feeling for the Organism: The Life and Work of Barbara McClintock (New York: W. H. Freeman and Co., 1983); idem, Reflections on Gender and Science (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1985); M. Rossiter, Women Scientists in America: Straggles and Strategies to 1940 (Baltimore: Johns Hopkins University Press, 1982); P. Abir-Am and D. Outram eds., Uneasy Careers and Intimate Lives: Women in Science, 1789-1979 (New Brunswick: Rutgers University Press, 1987).

40 See, for example, D. de S. Price and D. Beaver, "Collaboration in an Invisible College," American Psychologist 21 (1966): 1011-1018; D. Crane, Invisible Colleges: Diffusion of Knowledge in Scientific Communities (Chicago: University of Chicago Press, 1972); N. C. Mullins, Social Networks among Biological Scientists (New York: Arno Press, 1980); N. Reingold, "On Not Doing the Papers of Great Scientists," British Journal of History of Science 20 (1987): 29-38.

41 Corner, History of the Rockefeller Institute, 109-110.

42 p. Starr, The Social Transformation of American Medicine (New York: Basic Books, Inc., 1982), 340-343.

43 Steps in this direction are: I. Berenblum, Man Against Cancer: The Story of Cancer Research (Baltimore: The Johns Hopkins University Press, 1952), and J. Patterson, The Dread Disease: Cancer and Modem American Culture (Cambridge: Harvard University Press, 1987).

44 Benison, Tom Rivers; Corner, History of the Rockefeller Institute; a popular account by G. Williams, Virus Hunters (New York: Alfred A. Knopf, 1960); N. Rogers, "Screen the Baby Swat the Fly: Polio in the Northeastern United States, 1916," Ph.D. dissertation, University of Pennsylvania, 1986.