Bergmann, Max (1884-1944). Biochemist.

Papers, ca. 1930-1945, ca. 7,500 items (7.5 In.ft.).

Max Bergmann, formerly director of the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute for Leather Research, joined the Rockefeller Institute in 1933; he was one of many German scientists of the intellectual migration. A protégé of Emil Fischer, Bergmann had developed in Germany a leading center for protein chemistry, attracting students from around the world. His successful career continued in his new homeland, which he considered "the best country on the globe" (Felix Haurowitz file, 8 July 1943). His research program, which focused on the action of proteolytic enzymes on synthetic peptides and on the problem of protein structure, aimed at explaining the biological specificity of proteins. As determinants of specificity, proteins were then generally regarded as the active hereditary material in the chromosomes; Bergmann's investigations were also intended to account for this genetic specificity. The Bergmann Papers--letters, reports, addresses, and lectures -- are therefore important not only for the history of biochemistry, but also for the history of molecular genetics.

The correspondence shows Bergmann to be a central figure within the international network of protein chemists, and instrumental in helping other émigré biochemists in the 1930s. The letters also document the importance of Bergmann's laboratory as a training center; among his young assistants were Stanford Moore and William H. Stein, who developed sensitive techniques of chromatography. In addition to basic work on proteins, Bergmann remained associated with leather research, and the collection contains material on this link between academic biochemistry and commercial leather research in America.

The correspondence files include: The American Chemical Society (ca. 1930s-1940s), including materials on symposia on nutrition; American Leather Chemists Association (ca. 1930s-1940s); W. T. Astbury (late 1930s), correspondence regarding Bergmann's theories of protein structure; R. Ballentine (2 files, 1930s-1940s), scientific and professional communications; E. Chargaff** (ca. 1940s), professional exchanges; A+ Chibnall(l930s-1940s), on professional activities related to protein chemistry; W. M. Clark* (1942), on technical issues in protein chemistry; H. T. Clarke* (2 files, 1930s-1940s), including materials on the network of protein chemists; M. Demerec* (ca. 1940), on the 1941 Cold Spring Harbor Symposium; V. du Vigneaud** (ca. 1930s-1940s) on scientific and social matters; A. Einstein, personal matters; H. O. L. Fischer (3 files, ca. 1930s-1940s), on scientific and social concerns; Simon Flexner* (ca. 1930s), Flexner's reaction to Bergmann's work; H. Fraenkel-Conrat (2 files, ca. 1930s-1940s), important correspondence regarding Fraenkel-Conrat's career as an émigré life scientist; J. Fruton (3 files, ca. 1930s-1940s), on professional and scientific matters; H. Gasser (2 files, ca. 1930s-1940s), technical correspondence and response to W. Stein's work; F. B. Hanson (ca. 1930s), informative correspondence about Rockefeller Foundation Fellowships, including the fellowship of C. Niemann; F. Haurowitz (1943), regarding Haurowitz's immigration to the United States; Institute for Leather Research (ca. 1930s-1940s), informative material about organic chemistry of leather and tanning; American Leather Chemists Association (ca. 1930s-1940s), on Bergmann's dealings with administrative and social aspects within the profession; P.A.T. Levene'* (ca+ 1930s), including Levene's reaction to Bergmann's research and materials related to the establishment of the Protein Committee; K. Link** (6 files, 1930s-1940s), about various aspects of biochemistry, especially agricultural chemistry in Wisconsin; O. Meyerhoff(ca. 1940s), on Meyerhoff's move to the University of Pennsylvania; H. J. Muller (ca. 1930s), in regard to an invitation to participate in the Seventh International Congress of Genetics; C. Neuberg* (ca. 1930s), a response to Bergmann's work; H. Neurath (ca. 1940s), on protein chemistry; C+ Niemann (2 files, ca. 1930s), various intellectual and institutional aspects of protein chemistry; J. H. Northrop** (2 files, 1930s-1940s), scientific correspondence; F. O'Flaherty (4 files, ca. 1930s-1940s) on leather research; W. J. V. Osterhout' (ca. 1940s), Bergmann's reaction to Osterhout's work; L. Pauling (ca. 1940), on Niemann's career; M. Perutz, letters referring to the Rockefeller Foundation; Protein Committee (ca. 1930s-1940s), on many scientific and organizational aspects of protein chemistry in America; Refugee Correspondence (1941); William J. Robbins*, on administrative issues; F.O. Schmitt (2 files, ca. 1930s-1940s), material on the state of protein chemistry; W+ Stein (3 files, ca. 1930s-1940s), on various aspects of Stein's career; K.G. Stern, regarding Bergmann's joining the enzyme group; University of Michigan (ca. 1930s), on his summer lectures.

These files are supplemented by the Bergmann correspondence in the Flexner Papers* (1933-1942).

Cannon, Walter Bradford (1871-1945). Physiologist. APS 1908.

Papers, ca. 1905-1928, 658 items.

(The major collection of W. B Cannon Papers is at the Countway Library, Harvard)

When Walter B. Cannon was chosen to succeed Henry P. Bowditch in 1906 as head of the Laboratory of Experimental Physiology at Harvard Medical School (the first laboratory of experimental physiology in America), he was already recognized as a leader in the field. A champion of scientific medicine and experimental biology, Cannon's neurophysiological studies on the regulation of the sympathetic nervous function, often entailed vivisection of system, and his work on endocrine animals (mainly cats). This of course was a motivating factor in his active participation in the effort against the anti-vivisection campaign.

Originating late in the nineteenth century, the legislative debates concerning vivisection, which continued well into the 1920s, transcended mere emotional issues of cruelty to animals. The opposition to experimental research in physiology threatened the image of the new establishment of scientific medicine, its public support and potential resources. This threat was a motivating force behind Cannon's opposition to the anti-vivisectionists.

The correspondence between William Williams Keen (APS president 1908-1918) and W.B. Cannon, which makes up most of this collection, deals almost exclusively with the anti-vivisection campaign and the legislative debate which it spawned. Although these papers do not address physiology research per se, they are a valuable source on aspects of the social and political context of experimental physiology and medicine.

This collection is complemented by the Cannon correspondence in the papers of Flexner* (8 files, 1910-1938), Rous*, and Clark*. These communications reflect Cannon's immense influence on the institutional aspects of the life sciences. File #8 in the Flexner Papers* is particularly informative about Cannon's views regarding the study of human behavior under the aegis of the Rockefeller Foundation's new biology program in the early 1930s and his advisory role within the Foundation.

Chargaff, Erwin (1905- ). Biochemist. APS 1979.

Papers, ca. 1931-1971, ca. 30,000 items.

Erwin Chargaff was the first biochemist in America to develop a substantial research program centered around the genetic specificity of nucleic acids, research that formed a major chapter in the history of molecular biology. Having been one of a handful of life scientists in the mid-1940s to appreciate the significance of O. T. Avery's discovery that DNA was the transforming principle in pneumococci, Chargaff set out to probe the chemical properties of nucleic acids in relation to their biological specificity. By 1950 his finding that DNA could account for genetic specificity led to the demise of P.A.T. Levene's** dominant tetranucleotide theory of DNA structure, which regarded DNA as ill-suited for carrying information. Chargaff's findings also eclipsed some of Max Bergmann's* protein theories of biological specificity. Chargaff's work was a turning point in gene research from proteins to nucleic acids, and his laboratory at Columbia (in the biochemistry department headed by H.T. Clarke*) became a premier center for nucleic acids chemistry.

The Chargaff Papers document in detail the intellectual and social history of his research program. There are 46 boxes of personal and professional correspondence, and 23 boxes of manuscript drafts and calculations. The files, still in the order in which Chargaff had arranged them (roughly chronologically), are at present somewhat difficult to use. A detailed finding aid by P. Abir-Am has been prepared.

The collection contains records of Chargaff's investigations on rickettsia and typhus during the war years 1942-1945 as part of the OSRD projects, as well as material on his research on the chemistry of blood coagulants (Boxes 1-3); these are important sources on the relation of the life sciences to the military. There is a great deal of material on the crucial years 1945-1950, during which time Chargaff reoriented his research program toward the chemistry of heredity, and records that include rejections of his research proposals by several foundations (Boxes 3-4).

After 1950, with the increased interest in nucleic acids, Chargaff gained recognition and acquired his own research facilities at Columbia, the Laboratory of Cell Chemistry. Boxes 5-12 include material on nucleic acids research, the rise of molecular genetics, and Chargaff's role in these developments. Of interest are his exchanges with pharmaceutical houses (ca. 1940s-1950s), including Hoffmann-La Roche, Bio-Vin, Upjohn, Eli Lilly, Rohm and Haas, and Parke-Davis, communications highlighting the links between academic and industrial biochemistry. The remainder of the correspondence (1960s) reflects the expansion of Chargaff's administrative activities and his increased influence within the life sciences.

The major correspondents in this collection are: R. J . Anderson (Box 3, file 1; Box 5, file 1); W.T. Astbury (Box 12, file 1); J. Barzun (Box 28, file 7); E. D. Bergmann (Box 3, file 2; Box 5, file 2); K. Bernhard (Box 3, file 2); A. Bondi (Box 5, file 2); J. Brachet (Box 18, file 2); G. Brawerman (Box 13, file 2); S. S. Cohen (Box 5, file 3; Box 18, file 3); W. E. Cohn (Box 5, file 3; Box 10, file 4; Box 13, file 8; Box 18, file 3); Columbia University (Box 13, file 6); J. N. Davidson (Box 3, file 2; Box 6, file 1; Box 10, file 4; Box 29, file 12); P. Doty (Box 6, file 1); C. Ehrensvard (Box 13, file 9); D. Elson (Box 6, file 2; Box 10, file 6; Box 14, file 1;Box 18, file 5); A. C. Frazer (Box 3, file 3; Box 6, file 3; Box 10, file 7); G. Gamow (Box 6, file 4); T. Gustavson (Box 6, file 4); F. Haurowitz (Box 6, file 5; Box 10, file 10); J. N. Hawthorne (Box 6, file 5; Box 10, file 10; Box 19, file 5); S. Horstadius (Box 6, file 5); R. D. Hotchkiss (Box 6, file 5); J. C. Kendrew (Box 10, file 13; Box 11, file 13); J. Lederberg (Box 7, file 4; Box 16, file 3); K. Lindestrom-Lang (Box 7, file 4); A. Monroy (Box 7, file 5; Box 16, file 3); N. W. Pirie (Box 7, file 7; Box 11, file 4; Box 16, file 5; Box 19, file 10); M. R. Pollock (Box 16, file 5; Box 19, file 10); T. Reichenstein (Box 8, file 1); D. Rittenberg (Box 33, file 7); J. Runnstrom (Box 4, file 2; Box 17, file 6); J. J. Saukkonen (Box 11, file 7; Box 16, file 8; Box 20, file 1); G. Schmidt (Box 4, file 3; Box 8, file 2); E. C. Slater (Box 36, 8, file 3); R. Vendrely (Box 11, file 15; Box 20, file 4); E. Vischer (Box 11, file 15; Box 20, file 4); M. H. F. Wilkins (Box 11, file 17). There are a few interesting exchanges with F. H. C. Crick (early 1950s), and L. Pauling (late 1940s) .

Unfortunately there is little material on Chargaff's years in Germany or the period 1934-1941, when he first established his research program at Columbia. But being a prolific writer and a vociferous critic of American culture, Chargaff frequently compared his European and American experiences. His correspondence with many European colleagues throughout the 1940s and 1950s deals with issues surrounding the intellectual migration and reflects this cross-cultural perspective.

Clark, William Mansfield (1884-1964). Biochemist. APS 1939.

Papers, ca. 1903-1964, ca. 7000 items, 24 notebooks (6 ln.ft.).

William Mansfield Clark headed the Department of Physiological Chemistry at the Johns Hopkins Medical School from 1927 to 1952, where he developed a major research program in physical biochemistry, centering around oxidation-reduction potentials of organic systems, research that required precise measurements and sensitive instruments. The Clark Papers contain material relating to his lectures and papers, twenty-four notebooks (1941-1953), ten files on his associate Barnett Cohen (1910s-1950s) that include extensive data on dyes, and two photograph files containing pictures of his laboratory, the "Temple of pH." There are also four student notebooks (physical chemistry, optics, thermodynamics/physics), which together with the correspondence, form a rich record on laboratory practice and training in physical biochemistry.

Clark's correspondence files include communications with American chemists, biochemists, and physiologists, among them Roger Adams (ca. 1940s), on activities related to World War II; Rudolph J. Anderson (ca. 1930s), on matters related to Clark's editorship of the Journal of Biological Chemistry; Eric Ball** (ca. 1930s-1960s); R. K. Cannan (ca. 1920s-1930s), reflections on Clark's program and his place within biochemistry; W. B. Cannon* (1930s), administrative communications; James B. Conant (1920s-1940s), technical correspondence; Roger M. Herriott (1940s); Jacques Loeb** (1920), professional exchanges; Leonor Michaelis (1920s1950s), professional exchanges; Albert W. Noyes (1920s-1960s); A. N. Richards (1920s-1950s), administrative correspondence; Donald D. Van Slyke** (3 files, 1920s-1950s), scientific and administrative correspondence; Hubert B. Vickery (2 files, 1940s-1960s), scientific and administrative communications; Vincent Du Vigneaud** (1950s); and H. Wieland** (1920s); as well as exchanges with the European biochemists Joseph Needham (1920s), S. P. L. Sorensen (1920s), and Hugo Theorell (1950s). The files on Eric Ball**, Edward A. Park (1930s), and Otto Warburg (1940s) reveal episodes and attitudes (including anti-Semitism) related to the intellectual migration.

Before coming to Johns Hopkins, Clark had worked in bacterial chemistry at the United States Department of Agriculture and in the United States Public Health Service, where he was made chief of the Division of Chemistry of the Hygienic Laboratory. A few files (records dated before 1927) contain information on the practice of biochemistry and microbiology within federal bureaus.

Clark's career, as seen from his papers, exemplifies the disciplinary evolution from medical chemistry to biochemistry. As the founders of American biochemistry sought to liberate their field from a clinical service role, they increasingly allied it with the physical sciences; Clark's skills in physical biochemistry -- his hydrogen ion determinations, and his studies of buffers and salts in connection with bacterial fermentation--were well suited to the new orientation. This reorientation is documented in correspondence files on J. J. Abel, W. Pepper, and A. N. Richards (1920s), and in a 1927 letter about Clark's appointment in the "Unknown" #2 file.

During his tenure at Johns Hopkins, Clark assumed leadership of his profession. He was on the editorial board of the Journal of Biological Chemistry and served as president of both the Society of American Bacteriologists and the American Society of Biological Chemists. The materials on Johns Hopkins University (4 files, 1909-1955), on the Society of American Bacteriologists (6 files, 1927-195 5), and on the American Society of Biological Chemists (1931-57) document important institutional aspects of the rise of American biochemistry. Clark's correspondence with Isaiah Bowman (1930s-1940s), Detlev W. Bronk (1940s-1950s), Vannevar Bush (1940s), J.B. Conant (1920s-1940s), and A.N. Richards (1920s-1950s) shows him to have been an active member of the scientific establishment that emerged during World War I and shaped American science well into the 1950s.

Clarke, Hans Thacher (1887-1972). Biochemist. APS 1943.

Papers, ca. 1903-1973, ca. 3500 items (3 In.ft.).

The appointment of Hans Thacher Clarke as chairman of the biochemistry department of Columbia's College of Physicians and Surgeons in 1928 signaled a disciplinary shift away from a clinical orientation toward a biochemistry firmly rooted in organic and physical chemistry. In urging him to assume the chairmanship, James Conant wrote to Clarke, "Here is a Medical Group that at last have seen the light and want a straight organic chemist to run the show" (Box 3, 23 May 1928).

Clarke's background in academic and industrial organic chemistry had had little connection to medical problems. A protégé of William Ramsay at University College in London, and later a student of Emil Fischer, Clarke specialized in the synthesis of proteins. During World War I and until his move to Columbia, Clarke engaged in research and development of photographic chemicals at Eastman Kodak, retaining a consultantship with Kodak until 1969 (3 files, ca. 60 items, 1912-1963). During these years Clarke acquired a reputation among organic chemists as a superb organizer of research.

His administrative skills and ability to recognize talent contributed to the growth of Columbia's biochemistry department, which by the 1940s had become one of the largest and most influential in the United States. The correspondence with Clarke's mentor A. W. Stewart (ca. 20 items, 1926-1935) contains materials regarding the development of the new department. The file "Biochemistry at Columbia" (1955) includes a list of doctorates granted from 1913 to 1957, with the positions of the graduates in 1955. In addition to correspondence, the collection contains laboratory notebooks from 1928 to 1971.

During the 1930s, Clarke opened his laboratory to refugee biochemists, among them E. Brand, E. Chargaff* (ca. 1940s-1950s); Z. Dische, K. Meyer, D. Nachmansohn (ca. 10 items, 1961-1969), R. Schoenheimer, and H. Waelsch. Unfortunately, the correspondence does not reflect the scope of these activities. The Chargaff* file contains material reflecting Clarke's influence and popularity among his students and colleagues.

Other correspondents include: Roger Adams (3 items, 1947-1968); Detlev W. Bronk; Vincent Du Vigneaud**; Joseph S. Fruton (7 items, 1955-1972); William J. Gies (letters related to biographical material on Gies); Sir Iulian Huxley (17 letters, 1958-1972); J. Murray Luck (9 letters, 1956-1965); Samuel Smiles (15 items, 1926-1934); William Shockley (2 files, 1968-1970); Sir Geoffrey Taylor (ca. 30 items, 1955-1972); and Merle Tuve (biographical material on Clarke).

In addition to Clarke's central role in developing biochemistry at Columbia, the collection documents the broad range of his professional activities in the National Academy of Sciences (3 files, 1942-1963); the American Chemical Society (3 files, 1956-1966); the American Society of Biological Chemists (5 files, 1942-1963); and the the Merck Fellowship Board (1957, regarding his chairmanship).

Cohn, Mildred (1913- ). Biochemist, biophysicist. APS 1972.

Papers, 1947-1980, ca. 12,000 items (19 ln. ft.).

The career of Mildred Cohn developed during a time when the Rockefeller Foundation was funneling millions of dollars into physico-chemical biology, with a primary interest in the laboratories where Cohn conducted her researches. Mildred Cohn received her doctorate in physical chemistry from Columbia University in 1938, completing her graduate work under Harold C. Urey on the biological uses of stable isotopes. She continued her research at Cornell under V. Du Vigneaud**, where she established an isotope laboratory for investigations of various metabolic processes. From 1946 to 1960 Cohn worked in the laboratory of Carl and Gerty Cori (Nobel laureates in 1947 for studies of glycogen metabolism) at Washington University, continuing her studies of enzymatic mechanisms with the use of isotopes. In 1953 she began working with the new technique of nuclear magnetic resonance (NMR), which remained her active research area at the Johnson Foundation and Department of Biophysics at the University of Pennsylvania.

The Cohn collection includes correspondence, research data (20 notebooks), reviews of grant proposals (NSF, Research Corporation), manuscripts, and student recommendations (restricted); however, there is almost no record of her career prior to the early 1950s. The correspondence includes scientific communications with: Paul D. Boyer; Britton Chance** (3 files, ca. 1960s); Carl and Gerty Cori; V. Du Vigneaud** (ca. 1960s-1970s); Du Pont de Nemours and Co. (ca. 1960s); Manfred Eigen (ca. 1960s); Arthur Kornberg (ca. 1950s); Daniel Koshland (ca. 1960s); Hans Krebs (ca. late 1950s and early 1960s); Stanley L. Miller (Urey file, 1960s-1970s); and Albert Szent-Gyorgyi (1961). These materials are a rich source on the role of instruments and laboratory techniques in biochemistry and biophysics.

The papers of Mildred Cohn are especially informative on the early uses of NMR applications to biological systems, and on the development of that important technology from the early 1950s to the mid-1970s. There are files on Gordon Conferences on NMR (1964-1971), on the International Conferences on NMR (7 files, 1960s-1970s), numerous files under NMR, and correspondence with Varian Instruments (1960-1975), the first commercial manufacturer of NMR instruments. These files, complemented by correspondence with Cohn's colleagues, form a substantial record of the history of NMR technology in the life sciences and the history of biophysics.

Cold Spring Harbor, New York.

Biological Laboratory Records, 1958-1965, ca. 100 pp.

The history of the Cold Spring Harbor laboratories began in 1904 with the Station for Experimental Evolution (later renamed Department of Genetics), sponsored by the Carnegie Institution of Washington. In 1924, the Long Island Biological Association established a summer research institute on the Station's grounds that soon emphasized physico-chemical biology. The Cold Spring Harbor summer symposia in quantitative biology, which began in 1933, became intellectual markers in physiology, biochemistry, and biophysics. In the early 1940s, under the energetic directorship of Milislav Demerec*, the Department of Genetics and the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories were consolidated, becoming by the late 1940s an international center of molecular genetics. Due in part to the catalytic growth of the symposia and research activities, the 1950s were a time of reorganization, to equip the Cold Spring Harbor Laboratories better for its leadership role in the life sciences.

Apart from brief historical accounts, the Cold Spring Harbor Collection provides little material on the formative years of the laboratory, but it does document the second phase of its history. The material in the Cold Spring Harbor Collection includes correspondence (M. Demerec*, W. H. Page, and E. L. Tatum), reports, and minutes of meetings. The collection is complemented by the Demerec Papers*, which contain sources on the earlier history of Cold Spring Harbor, and by the Charles Davenport Papers at the APS Library, which contain two series of Cold Spring Harbor records from its earlier phase.

Demerec, Milislav (1895-1966). Geneticist. APS 1952.

Papers, 1919-1966, ca. 10,000 items (18 In.ft.).

Milislav Demerec came to the United States from Yugoslavia in 1919 and joined the Department of Plant Breeding at Cornell, where he studied variegation of maize. In 1923 Demerec began his career at Cold Spring Harbor* as a staff member of the Department of Genetics of the Carnegie Institution of Washington, later expanding his research interests to include studies of Delphiniums, Drosophila, and radiation genetics.

In the early 1940s Demerec became director of the Long Island Biological Association Laboratory and the Department of Genetics. Under his leadership the two scientific groups were in effect combined, and Cold Spring Harbor became an institution where genetics intersected with research in physico-chemical biology. It was a center especially noted for its summer phage courses and symposia in quantitative biology. By the time of Demerec's retirement in 1960, Cold Spring Harbor had become an international center of molecular biology.

Unfortunately there are no files on the summer symposia, but there is some related material. In order to organize summer research and conferences, Demerec communicated with researchers from several areas in the life sciences. Therefore, in addition to files on his activities in classical genetics-professional organizations, lectures, correspondence with geneticists, and over sixty laboratory notebooks -- the Demerec Collection contains records of his involvement with the new physico-chemical biology, and material on conferences and international congresses.

The correspondents include: Harold A. Abramson (2 files, 1957-1960); E. B. Babcock; George W. Beadle (1920s-1950s); Albert F. Blakeslee; Calvin B. Bridges (7 files, 1931-1949); Detlev W. Bronk; Ernst W. Caspari; William E. Castle; Edward U. Condon; Charles B. Davenport; Max Delbrück; Theodosius Dobzhansky (7 files, 1929-1957); Rollins Emerson (ca. 80 items, 1923-1947); Boris Ephrussi (1930s-1950s); Richard B. Goldschmidt; J. B. S. Haldane (1930s-1950s); Alexander Hollaender*; Charles W. Metz; Henry A. Moe; Hermann J. Muller; Tracy Sonneborn; Lewis Stadler; A.H. Sturtevant; N.W. Timof~eff-Ressovsky (2 files, mostly from the 1930s); M.A. Tuve (ca. 30 items, 1936-1947); and Harold Urey.

Flexner, Simon (1863-1946). Bacteriologist, pathologist, administrator. APS 1901

Papers, ca. 1891-1946, ca. 175,000 items (163 ln.ft.).

Simon Flexner was one of the most influential figures in the life sciences in America, and a prominent member of the scientific establishment that shaped the country's intellectual and social development. Major aspects of this growth are documented in this voluminous collection, which includes correspondence, diaries (ca. 1900, 1915-1944), laboratory notebooks (ca. 1900-1920), and drafts of articles and addresses.

The early phases of Flexner's academic career -- his medical education at the University of Louisville, his subsequent move to Johns Hopkins (1890-1899), and his tenure at the University of Pennsylvania as professor of pathology (1899-1906) -- are not covered in this collection (however, a number of secondary sources fill these gaps). A Guide to Selected Files of The Professional Papers of Simon Flexner at the American Philosophical Society Library by Margaret Miller (APS, 1979) describes parts of the collection in detail. The entry on Flexner in this bibliography therefore addresses only those files which bear on the intellectual and institutional development of physiology, biochemistry, and biophysics. Files that are substantial enough to form manuscript sources on researchers in these disciplines are annotated separately in the secondary group.

Flexner influenced the growth of physiology, biochemistry, and biophysics in two ways: as director of the Rockefeller Institute, and through his positions of leadership in the Rockefeller Foundation, the National Research Council, the Carnegie Foundation and other scientific organizations and journals; his professional papers reflect both aspects of his influence. The major correspondents within these scientific spheres are: E. Abderhalden (5 files, 1911-1934), on physiological and biochemical research in Germany and at the Kaiser-Wilhelm Institute; Roger Adams (10 items, 1929-1934); Jerome Alexander (20 items, 1916-1934), on colloid chemistry; C. L. Alsberg (15 items, 1913-1920), material on USDA Bureau of Chemistry; O. T. Avery (3 files, 1913-1945), administrative communications; F. G. Banting (ca. 50 items, 1923-1937), on the production of insulin; Max Bergmann* (35 items, 1933-1942), scientific and administrative correspondence; Niels Bohr (4 items, 1938), on the relation of physics to biology; W. B. Cannon*; E. J. Cohn**; Camegie Institution (5 files, 1911-1915); P. Lecomte Du Noüy (60 items, 1919-1937), correspondence on x-ray crystallography, and on molecular physics at the Pasteur Institute; D. Edsall (3 files, 1910-1930); W. R. Embree (24 files, 1917-1936), on the Rockefeller Foundation's support of the life sciences; W. O. Fenn (20 items, 19211924), plans for work in biophysics and physiology; M. Heidelberger (2 files, 1913-1943); Johns Hopkins University School of Hygiene and Public Health (3 files, 1916-1925); K. Landsteiner* (3 files, 1914-1937), administrative communications; P. A. T. Levene**; F. R. Lillie*; J. Loeb**; A. S. Loevenhart (45 items, 1910-1929), physiology and pharmacology at the University of Wisconsin; O. Meyerhoff(25 items, 1923-1934); L. Michaelis (50 items, 1920-1937, 1945); A. E. Mirsky (12 items, 1927-1934, 1944), scientific and administrative correspondence; T. H. Morgan (2 files, 1919-1935), general correspondence; J. B. Murphy(l0 files, 1915-1939), communications on cancer research and administrative concerns; National Research Council (24 files, 1916-1945); J. H. Northrop** P.K. Olitskyt (7 files, 1917-1939), work on viruses; W. J. V. Osterhout* (40 items, 1927-1941), scientific and administrative material; T. M. Rivers* (4 files, 1922-1949), virus diseases; Rockefeller Foundation (9 files, 1913-1934); Rockefeller Institute (20 files, 1914-1939); Rockefeller Sanitary Commission (1 file, 1910); Wickliffe Rose (24 files, 1910-1931), correspondence on the International Health Board and support of the natural sciences by the Rockefeller Foundation; F.P. Rous* (11 files, 1916-1941), administrative correspondence mainly about the Journal of Experimental Medicine; F. R. Sabin (4 files, 1913-1940), general correspondence; W. M. Stanley** (18 items, 1935-1941); 0. Warburg (25 items, 1924-1931); W. H. Welch (14 files, 1910-1932), scientific and administrative correspondence; E. Beecher Wilson" (3 files, 1915-1939), relation between research in the life sciences and support by insurance companies; D. D. Van Slyke** R. W. G. Wyckoff**; and H. Zinsser(ll files, 1913-1935), administrative correspondence and scientific communications on virus research and immunology.

Hollaender, Alexander(1898-1985 ). Biophysicist, geneticist.

Papers, ca. 1950-1970, ca. 4000 items (8 In.ft.).

Alexander Hollaender was educated at the University of Wisconsin, receiving his doctorate in physical chemistry in 1931. These were exciting times to be at Wisconsin, surrounded by scientists like Max Mason, Warren Weaver, J. W. Williams*, and T. Svedberg*, men who in the early 1930s would spearhead the merger of physics, chemistry, and biology under the aegis of the Rockefeller Foundation. Hollaender became an active participant in these intellectual and institutional endeavors. He remained associated with Wisconsin until 1937, working on problems of radiation genetics and chemical mutagenesis (he was one of the first researchers to point out the significance of nucleic acids in mutagenesis). He was also an adviser to the Rockefeller Foundation on the development of molecular biology, and was involved in administering Rockefeller Fellowships and projects of the National Research Council.

In 1937 Hollaender moved to the Washington Biophysics Institute of the National Institutes of Health as an associate biologist, and soon after was promoted as senior biophysicist, a position he held until 1950. By that time Hollaender had established himself as a world authority on radiation genetics. He served as director of the division of biology at the Atomic Energy Commission's Oak Ridge National Laboratory from 1946 to 1966, and as a senior research adviser from 1967 until his retirement in 1972. His personal papers have been deposited at the University of Tennessee.

The Hollaender Papers at the APS Library document his activities in postwar radiation genetics, a field addressing biological problems in relation to the newly unleashed powers of atomic energy. There are 30 files containing records of the National Academy's Committee on the Biological Effects of Atomic Radiation, and 41 files on, the Second International Conference on the Peaceful Uses of Atomic Energy. As an active member of the World Health Organization (WHO), Hollaender headed a Study Group on the Effects of Radiation on Human Genetics, activities recorded in approximately 30 files. There is also material on the 1958 Symposium on Genetics in Medical Research, and material on more current issues (1960s) in genetics and molecular biology, such as the International Conference on Replication and Recombination of Genetic Material (7 files, ca. 1960s), and records on the Workshop on Space Radiation Biology (1965).

The main correspondents in this collection are : G. W. Beadle, D. W. Bronk, C. I. Campbell, M. Demerec*, T. Dobzhansky, S. Emerson, J. Lederberg, H. J. Muller, J. V. Neel, Max Perutz, C. Stern, A. H. Sturtevant, and W. Weaver. These communications, together with the files on radiation genetics, form an important source on the history of that field and its relations to social concerns, environmental issues, and cancer research.

Landsteiner, Karl (1868-1943). Medical researcher, immunologist. APS 1935.

Biographical data, ca. 650 items.

When Landsteiner left Vienna in 1922 at the age of fifty-four to join the Rockefeller Institute, he had already done much of his most important work. In the early years of the century he had discovered a simple technique of agglutination, whereby human blood was divided into four groups, a discovery that made possible safe blood transfusions. This work, in turn, led him to the study of hereditary differences in antigens of blood groups, and thus to the birth of serological genetics. A succession of discoveries followed in the 1920s and 1930s, after he had moved to the Rockefeller Institute: the discovery of blood factors (M, N, P, and Rh factors), and investigations on the chemical specificity of serological reactions, which became a basis of immunochemistry. Landsteiner was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physiology or Medicine in 1930.

After Landsteiner's death, George M. Mackenzie began collecting materials for a biography: correspondence with friends and associates of Landsteiner, memoranda of conversations, notes and recollections of Landsteiner by T.M. Rivers* (1944-1952) and by Max Neuberger, annual reports from Landsteiner's laboratory at the Institute (1923-43), correspondence on publications and the Nobel Prize, and raw material on immunology and the study of blood. These materials comprise the Landsteiner Collection (the biography was never completed). Of special interest are records on medical education in Vienna, the growth of anti-Semitism, and correspondence with Simon Flexner* which led to Landsteiner's move to the Institute.

The collection is eclectic and contains large gaps (many scribbled notes), but it is useful as a supplemental background source on Landsteiner. The collection is complemented by the Landsteiner correspondence in the Flexner Papers* (3 files, 1914-1937), which contains administrative and scientific material on Landsteiner's laboratory. There is also substantial material on Landsteiner in the Rous Papers* (5 files, 1920s-1940s).

Lewis, Warren Harmon (1870-1964) Cytologist. APS 1943.

Papers, ca. 1913-1964, ca+ 8000 items (8 In.ft.).

Between the 1910s and 1930s, Warren Harmon Lewis (together with his wife and colleague Margaret Lewis) developed methods of tissue culture and means of observation which revolutionized the field of cytology. While still at the Anatomical Laboratory at Johns Hopkins (1903-1919), the Lewises prepared a simple fluid which enabled them to grow cells in culture dishes and thus observe previously hidden details of cell structure and physiological activities. They continued their cytological studies at the Embryology Department of the Carnegie Institution (located in Baltimore) until their move to the Wistar Institute in Philadelphia after 1940.

Warren Lewis's research program focused mainly on morphological aspects of cell structure, cell division, cell locomotion, and phagocytosis, in normal as well as in cancer cells. In 1929 he was first to develop time-lapse microscopic motion pictures to record observations on living cells in culture. His films became important teaching resources in cytology, and led him to develop mechanical theories of cell motion. Lewis was president of the American Association of Anatomists (1934-1936) and of the International Society for Experimental Cytology(1939-1947).

The Lewis Papers are primarily from the 1930s to the 1950s and consist of two divisions: correspondence and laboratory records. The correspondence documents his cytological studies and motion picture research on cells, as well as his activities in professional societies. The experimental materials include lectures, experiments, drawings, photographs, and film scripts, covering a wide range of topics in embryology, cytology, oncology, and immunology.

The correspondence section contains several files on the American Association of Anatomists, which include communications with leading scientists surrounding the 1935 symposium on "The Relation of the Anterior Pituitary to Reproduction", among them G. W. Corner, F. L. Hisaw, A. E. Severinghaus*, and E. T. Engle. There is material on the International Society for Experimental Cytology (3 files, 1938-1947), which includes correspondence with J. Runnstrom, R.G. Harrison, R+ Chambers, and D.W. Bronk; a file on the American Institute of Biological Sciences (1950), and on the Institut International d'Embryologie (1930s-1950s). Other important correspondents are: W. C. Alvarez(1937-1939), on various research problems in cytology; D. W. Bronk (1940), on reviewing a paper in biophysics; V. Bush (1930s-1950s), material on the Carnegie Institution and the Berkeley cyclotron; T. Caspersson** (1939), communications regarding a Rockefeller Fellowship for the study of DNA; C. B. Davenport (1930s); M. Demerec* W. B. Hardy (1930), on colloid science; A+ Hollaender* (1939); E. E. Just (1930s), on embryological research; C. Metz (1941), on embryology; F. R. Sabin; F. Schrader (1940s), on cytogenetics and cellular fusion; M. Schram (1940s), on international cancer research; and the Wistar Institute (1940s-1960s), numerous files on research and administrative issues at the Institute.